From Biological Prototype to Engineering Realization:A Review of Bio-inspired Sea Turtle Robots
Abstract
and locomotor modes of biological sea turtles. Starting from the morphological characteristics and locomotor modes, this paper elaborates on
their core supporting role in the robot's size selection, configuration design, degree-of-freedom allocation, and drive layout. It reveals the sig
nificant value of the mechanisms underlying the high-efficiency propulsion and high maneuverability of biological sea turtles in overcoming
the limitations of traditional underwater propellers. Meanwhile, the performance characteristics, application scenarios, and existing challenges
of rigid and soft actuators are analyzed, clarifying the potential of their combined development. In addition, the paper sorts out three major de
velopment directions include high-performance underwater type, amphibious type, and micro soft robot along with their application scenarios.
This provides theoretical and engineering references for the structural optimization, performance improvement, and diversified application
expansion of sea turtle-inspired robots.
Keywords
Full Text:
PDFReferences
[1] T. Fu et al., "Design, perception, planning and control for underwater cleaning robotics: Progress, challenges and trends, " Journal of
Ocean Engineering and Science, 2025.
[2] S. Fan,N. Bose, and Z. Liang, "Polar AUV challenges and applications: a review, " Drones, vol. 8, no. 8,p. 413, 2024.
[3] E. R. Sologuren, "Hybrid Soft-Rigid Robots: Investigating Series and Parallel Configurations, " Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
2024.
[4] H.-J. Kim, S.-H. Song, and S.-H. Ahn, "A turtle-like swimming robot using a smart soft composite (SSC) structure, " Smart Materials
and Structures, vol. 22, no. 1,p. 014007, 2012.
[5] Y. Liu, H. Li, S. Deng, S. Wang, S. Liu, and Z. Wang, "Biomimetic robotic sea lion fore flippers: Design, modeling, and experimenta
tion, " IEEE/ASME Transactions on Mechatronics, vol. 27, no. 6,pp. 5679-5689, 2022.
[6] M. Gong, J. Li, X. Zhang, D. Ning, and P. Ma, "Numerical and Experimental Study of a Bio-Inspired Flapping Wing with Increasing
Twist Angle Along the Wingspan, " Machines, vol. 14, no. 1,p. 102, 2026.
[7] T. Eguchi, J. A. Seminoff, R. A. LeRoux, D. Prosperi, D. L. Dutton, and P. H. Dutton, "Morphology and growth rates of the green sea
turtle (Chelonia mydas) in a northern-most temperate foraging ground, " Herpetologica, vol. 68, no. 1,pp. 76-87, 2012.
[8] C. Kinoshita, T. Fukuoka, T. Narazaki,Y. Niizuma, and K. Sato, "Analysis of why sea turtles swim slowly: a metabolic and mechanical
approach, " Journal of Experimental Biology, vol. 224, no. 4,p.jeb236216, 2021.
[9] N. van der Geest, L. Garcia, R. Nates, and A. Gonzalez-Vazquez, "Sea turtles employ drag-reducing techniques to conserve energy, "
Journal of Marine Science and Engineering, vol. 10, no. 11,p. 1770, 2022.
[10] J.Wyneken, "The anatomy of sea turtles, " 2001.
[11] W. F.Walker Jr, "Swimming in sea turtles of the family Cheloniidae, " Copeia,pp. 229-233, 1971.
[12] X. Liu, "The research of biomimetic sea turtle's flexible hydrofoils propulsion technology, " Ph.D. Dissertation, Harbin Engineering
University, 2012.
[13] Y.Yan et al., "Development of a turtle-inspired robot with variable stiffness hydrofoils, " in 2022 IEEE International Conference on Me
chatronics and Automation (ICMA), 2022: IEEE,pp. 493-498.
[14] N. van der Geest, L. Garcia, F. Borret, R. Nates, and A. Gonzalez, "Soft-robotic green sea turtle (Chelonia mydas) developed to replace
animal experimentation provides new insight into their propulsive strategies, " Scientific Reports, vol. 13, no. 1,p. 11983, 2023.
[15] M. Soliman, M. A. Mousa, M. A. Saleh, M. Elsamanty, and A. G. Radwan, "Modelling and implementation of soft bio-mimetic turtle
using echo state network and soft pneumatic actuators, " Scientific reports, vol. 11, no. 1,p. 12076, 2021.
[16] N. van der Geest and L. Garcia, "Employing robotics for the biomechanical validation of a prosthetic flipper for sea turtles as a substi
tute for animal clinical trials, " Biomechanics, vol. 3, no. 3,pp. 401-414, 2023.
[17] X. Sun et al., "Three-dimensional Hydrodynamic Analysis of Forelimb Propulsion of Sea Turtle With Prosthetic Flippers, " Journal of
Aero Aqua Bio-mechanisms, vol. 3, no. 1,pp. 36-44, 2013.
[18] S.-H. Song et al., "Turtle mimetic soft robot with two swimming gaits, " Bioinspiration &biomimetics, vol. 11, no. 3,p. 036010, 2016.
[19] J. Davenport, S.A. Munks, and P. Oxford, "A comparison of the swimming of marine and freshwater turtles, " Proceedings of the Royal
society of London. Series B. Biological sciences, vol. 220, no. 1221,pp. 447-475, 1984.
[20] D. Chu, X. Liu, and M. Zhang, "Research on turtle hydrofoil motion principle and bionics, " in 2007 IEEE International Conference on
Automation and Logistics, 2007: IEEE,pp. 2373-2378.
[21] J. a. Xu, X. Liu, D. Chu, L. Sun, and M. Zhang, "Analysis and experiment research of the turtle forelimb's hydrofoil propulsion method,
" in 2009 IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Biomimetics (ROBIO), 2009: IEEE,pp. 386-391.
[22] M. Zhang, X. Liu, D. Chu, and S. Guo, "The principle of turtle motion and bio-mechanism of its four limbs research, " in 2008 IEEE
Pacific-Asia Workshop on Computational Intelligence and Industrial Application, 2008, vol. 2: IEEE,pp. 573-578.
[23] N. van der Geest, L. Garcia, R.Nates, and D.A. Godoy, "New insight into the swimming kinematics of wild Green sea turtles (Chelonia
mydas), " Scientific Reports, vol. 12, no. 1,p. 18151, 2022.
[24] N. J. J. van der Geest, "Unlocking the Aquatic Ballet of Sea Turtles: Harnessing Sea Turtle Biomechanics for the Evolution of Marine
Technologies, "Auckland University of Technology, 2023.
[25] S. C. Licht, "Biomimetic oscillating foil propulsion to enhance underwater vehicle agility and maneuverability, " 2008.
[26] S. C. Licht, M.Wibawa, F. S. Hover, and M. S. Triantafyllou, "Towards amphibious robots:Asymmetric flapping foil motion underwater
produces large thrust efficiently, " Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Sea Grant College Program, 2009.
[27] J.Wyneken, K. J. Lohmann, and J.A. Musick, The biology of sea turtles. CRC press, 2013.
[28] T. Yasuda and N. Arai, "Changes in flipper beat frequency, body angle and swimming speed of female green turtles Chelonia mydas, "
Marine Ecology Progress Series, vol. 386,pp. 275-286, 2009.
[29] K. Ren and J.Yu, "Research status of bionic amphibious robots:A review, " Ocean Engineering, vol. 227,p. 108862, 2021.
[30] S. Licht, F. Hover, and M. S. Triantafyllou, "Design of a flapping foil underwater vehicle, " in Proceedings of the 2004 International
Symposium on Underwater Technology (IEEE Cat.No. 04EX869), 2004: IEEE,pp. 311-316.
[31] R. Baines et al., "Multi-environment robotic transitions through adaptive morphogenesis, " Nature, vol. 610, no. 7931, pp. 283-289,
2022.
[32] A. Liu et al., "An Intelligent Bionic Amphibious Turtle Robot With Visual-Tactile Fusion for Dynamic Terrain Adaptation, " IEEE
Transactions on Robotics, vol. 41,pp. 6345-6363, 2025.
[33] C. Siegenthaler, "System Integration and Fin-Trajectory Optimization for a Robotic Turtle (Master Thesis), " Retrieved from Swiss Fed
eral Institute of Technology Zurich.(386) http://students. asl. ethz. ch/upl_pdf/386-report.pdf, 2012.
[34] C. Siegenthaler, C. Pradalier, F. Gnther, G. Hitz, and R. Siegwart, "System integration and fin trajectory design for a robotic sea-turtle,
" in 2013 IEEE/RSJ International Conference on Intelligent Robots and Systems, 2013: IEEE,pp. 3790-3795.
[35] P. Wang, L. Zhao, and S. Tian, "Design and Kinematic Control of a 3-DOF Bionic Hydrofoil Propeller for Underwater Vehicles, "
CN107804446B, 2019-11-01.
[36] Z. Peng et al., "Design, Implementation and Experiment Validation of the Turtle-Inspired Robot, " in 2025 IEEE International Confer
ence on Mechatronics and Automation (ICMA), 2025: IEEE,pp. 628-633.
[37] J. S. Izraelevitz and M. S. Triantafyllou, "Adding in-line motion and model-based optimization offers exceptional force control authority
in flapping foils, " Journal of Fluid Mechanics, vol. 742,pp. 5-34, 2014.
[38] S. Licht, M. Wibawa, F. S. Hover, and M. S. Triantafyllou, "In-line motion causes high thrust and efficiency in flapping foils that use
power downstroke, " Journal of Experimental Biology, vol. 213, no. 1,pp. 63-71, 2010.
[39] Y. Kim, H.Yuk, R. Zhao, S.A. Chester, and X. Zhao, "Printing ferromagnetic domains for untethered fast-transforming soft materials, "
Nature, vol. 558, no. 7709,pp. 274-279, 2018.
[40] Y. Kim and X. Zhao, "Magnetic soft materials and robots, " Chemical reviews, vol. 122, no. 5,pp. 5317-5364, 2022.
[41] L. Xu, L. Yang, T. Li, X. Zhang, and J. Ding, "Deformation and locomotion of untethered small-scale magnetic soft robotic turtle with
programmable magnetization, " Journal of Bionic Engineering, vol. 21, no. 2,pp. 754-763, 2024.
[42] J. Qu et al., "Recent advances on underwater soft robots, "Advanced Intelligent Systems, vol. 6, no. 2,p. 2300299, 2024.
[43] J. Sun et al., "Performance Enhancement of a Morphing Limb for an Amphibious Robotic Turtle, " in 2024 IEEE 7th International Con
ference on Soft Robotics (RoboSoft), 2024: IEEE,pp. 374-379.
[44] N. van der Geest, L. Garcia, R.Nates, and F. Borrett, "New insights into sea turtle propulsion and their cost of transport point to a poten
tial new generation of high-efficient underwater drones for ocean exploration, " Journal of Marine Science and Engineering, vol. 11, no.
10,p. 1944, 2023.
[45] H. Zheng et al., "Magnetic Turtle-Like Robot with Biomimetic Movements Through Programmable Magnetic-Assisted 3D Printing, "
Small,p. 2412599, 2025.
DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.70711/frim.v4i4.9052
Refbacks
- There are currently no refbacks.
